Part 1: The Modern Origins and Ancient Near East

The Historical Origins of Gender as Distinct from Biological Sex: Part 1 – Modern Roots and Ancient Near East

What does it mean to say "gender" is distinct from biological sex? While we know that sex and gender are inseparable, you can't have one without the other, they are also not always synonymous. Today, we know these ideas are Janusian and that they idea shape conversations about identity, but its roots stretch back millennia. In this four-part series, we explore how ancient cultures worldwide recognized social roles and identities beyond biological sex, laying the groundwork for our modern understanding. Part 1 dives into the 20th-century emergence of the concept and its echoes in ancient Mesopotamia, biblical eunuchs, and ancient Egypt.

The Modern Distinction: Mid-20th Century Origins

The idea of "gender" as separate from biological sex took shape in the 1950s in Western academic and medical circles. Historically, "gender" was synonymous with "sex," referring to biology or grammar. This changed when psychologist John Money introduced "gender role" in 1955 while studying intersex conditions at Johns Hopkins University. He argued that social upbringing and identity could differ from biology, shaping treatments for intersex and transgender individuals. By the 1960s and 1970s, feminist scholars like Simone de Beauvoir (The Second Sex, 1949) and Ann Oakley (Sex, Gender and Society, 1972) framed gender as cultural expectations of masculinity and femininity, often tied to inequality. This shift, fueled by post-World War II social sciences and feminism, challenged rigid norms and highlighted misalignments between biology and identity.

Ancient Mesopotamia and Assyria: Gala Priests and Third Genders

Image: Cylinder seal from Ur depicting gala priests in feminine attire, ca. 2000 BCE.

In ancient Mesopotamia (3000–2000 BCE), Sumerian and Assyrian societies recognized gala priests, biologically male individuals who adopted feminine attire, speech (using the women’s eme-sal dialect), and behaviors to serve the goddess Inanna (Ishtar in Assyrian contexts). Some underwent castration to embody a "third gender" role in rituals and lamentations. Similar figures, the assinnu, engaged in prophecy and cultic activities, defying male/female binaries. The Epic of Erra describes them as neither fully male nor female, suggesting gender as fluid or performative. Cylinder seals from Ur, housed in the British Museum, show gala priests in feminine dress performing music, reflecting societal acceptance of non-binary roles.

Biblical Eunuchs: Beyond Binary Categories

The Bible, spanning roughly 1000 BCE to the 1st century CE, frequently mentions eunuchs (saris in Hebrew), often castrated males in royal courts, like Daniel (Daniel 1) or the Ethiopian eunuch baptized by Philip (Acts 8:26–40). Isaiah 56:3–5 promises inclusion for faithful eunuchs, portraying them as distinct from male or female norms. Jesus, in Matthew 19:11–12, categorizes eunuchs as "born that way" (possibly intersex), "made by others" (castrated), or choosing celibacy, suggesting gender as innate, imposed, or voluntary. Byzantine mosaics, like those in Ravenna’s churches, depict eunuchs in courtly attire, emphasizing their liminal roles. Scholars see them as proto-transgender figures, acknowledging identities beyond biology.

Ancient Egypt: Divine and Social Fluidity

Image: Relief of Niankhkhnum and Khnumhotep, ca. 2400 BCE, showing intimate male poses.

Ancient Egypt (from 3000 BCE) primarily operated on a binary gender system but allowed ambiguity. The term sekhet denoted a third gender, possibly eunuchs or non-conforming individuals. Gods like Atum, who self-fertilized, and Hapi, depicted with breasts, embodied dual traits. The Coffin Texts and Tale of Horus and Seth include gender shifts and homoerotic elements. The tomb of Niankhkhnum and Khnumhotep (5th Dynasty, ca. 2400 BCE) shows two men in poses typically reserved for couples, suggesting relational ambiguity. Statues of Akhenaten with androgynous features further highlight gender fluidity in art.

Looking Ahead

These ancient Near Eastern cultures show that gender variance isn’t a modern invention—it’s woven into humanity’s history. In Part 2, we’ll explore Asia’s contributions through ancient India and China, alongside gender roles in early Muslim societies. Stay tuned for more on this global journey!

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